Experimental sleep loss, racial bias, and the decision criterion to shoot in the Police Officer's Dilemma task.

Violent behavior, police brutality, and racial discrimination are currently at the forefront of society's attention, and they should be. We investigated whether mild sleep loss-as typical for many adults throughout the work week-could aggravate the socio-emotional-cognitive processes contributing to violence and discrimination. In a sample of 40 healthy young adults, we either experimentally restricted participants' sleep for four nights (6.2 h/night) or let participants obtain normal sleep (7.7 h/night)-and then had them complete the Police Officer's Dilemma Task. In this computerized task, the participant must rapidly decide to shoot or not shoot at White and Black men who either are or are not holding a gun. Results showed significant racial biases, including more and quicker shooting of Black targets compared to White targets. Furthermore, signal detection analyses demonstrated that mild sleep restriction changed participants' decision criterion, increasing the tendency to shoot, even when controlling for psychomotor vigilance, fluid intelligence, and self-reported desirability to behave in a socially acceptable manner. The increased tendency to shoot was also observed in participants who reported believing that they had adapted to the sleep loss. Future experimental research using trained police officers will help establish the generalizability of these laboratory effects. Importantly, sleep loss is modifiable via organization-level changes (e.g., shift scheduling, light entrainment) and individual-level interventions (e.g., sleep hygiene education, incentives for behavioral change), suggesting that if sleep loss is corrected, it could save lives-including Black lives.

Workplace experiences and turnover intention among adult survivors of childhood cancer.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to investigate workplace experiences and turnover intention (consideration of leaving or changing a job) and to examine factors associated with turnover intention among survivors. METHODS: Adult survivors of childhood cancer with a history of employment (n = 289) completed measures of workplace experiences (n = 50, 18-29 years; n = 183, 30-44 years; n = 56; > 45 years of age at follow-up). Turnover intention was assessed using three items from the Job Satisfaction Scale. Responses were dichotomized as reflecting high vs. low turnover intention. Path analysis was used to estimate the influence of demographic characteristics, treatment exposures (cranial radiation therapy [CRT]), and workplace experiences on turnover intention. RESULTS: Thirty percent of survivors reported high turnover intention (95% CL, 25 to 36%). Exposure to CRT (P = 0.003), older attained age (P < 0.001), experiencing formal workplace discrimination (P = 0.008), and having lower continuance (P < 0.001) or affective commitment (P < 0.001) were associated with high turnover intention among survivors. Informal discrimination, mediated through job satisfaction, also influenced survivors' reported intent to leave their jobs. CONCLUSIONS: One third of adult survivors of childhood cancer report turnover intention, which is related to their cancer treatment, but more temporally proximal, workplace discrimination. Additional research is needed to understand the consequences of turnover intention among survivors. IMPLICATIONS FOR CANCER SURVIVORS: Survivors and their health care providers should be aware of legislative policies related to workplace discrimination (e.g., American with Disabilities Act) and related implications for job turnover.

Gender disparities in colloquium speakers at top universities.

Colloquium talks at prestigious universities both create and reflect academic researchers' reputations. Gender disparities in colloquium talks can arise through a variety of mechanisms. The current study examines gender differences in colloquium speakers at 50 prestigious US colleges and universities in 2013-2014. Using archival data, we analyzed 3,652 talks in six academic disciplines. Men were more likely than women to be colloquium speakers even after controlling for the gender and rank of the available speakers. Eliminating alternative explanations (e.g., women declining invitations more often than men), our follow-up data revealed that female and male faculty at top universities reported no differences in the extent to which they (i) valued and (ii) turned down speaking engagements. Additional data revealed that the presence of women as colloquium chairs (and potentially on colloquium committees) increased the likelihood of women appearing as colloquium speakers. Our data suggest that those who invite and schedule speakers serve as gender gatekeepers with the power to create or reduce gender differences in academic reputations.

Fleeing the Ivory Tower: Gender Differences in the Turnover Experiences of Women Faculty.

PURPOSE: Prior research has established that women and men faculty have different experiences in their professional and personal lives and that academic turnover can be costly and disruptive to home institutions. However, relatively little research has examined gender differences in the antecedent events that contributed to faculty members' voluntary turnover decisions. This study aims to fill this gap. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Qualitative and quantitative data were obtained in two ways: by directly contacting faculty members who had voluntarily left their positions through the human resource departments at six institutions and through more wide-scale snowball sampling. The surveys, administered via paper or web based, measured the extent to which participants' experiences with harassment/discrimination, family-related issues, and recruitment/retention offers impacted their decisions to leave. Qualitative data were coded by raters into numerical values, and mean differences based on gender were assessed for these and the quantitative data. RESULTS: Both the qualitative and quantitative data suggest that female academicians reported experiencing significantly more gender-based harassment/discrimination, were much more likely to cite family-related reasons for leaving, and reported receiving significantly fewer external job offers and internal retention offers than their male counterparts. CONCLUSIONS: Academic science departments should be keenly aware of and strive to reduce instances of harassment/discrimination against female academicians, offer more support for family-related issues and encourage faculty to take advantage of these programs, and conduct search and retention efforts fairly regardless of faculty gender.

The Impact of Interpersonal Discrimination and Stress on Health and Performance for Early Career STEM Academicians.

The present study examines the consequences of perceived interpersonal discrimination on stress, health, and performance in a sample of 210 science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) academicians. Using a path model, we test the relation that perceived interpersonal discrimination has on stress and the relation of stress to physical health maladies and on current and future performance. In so doing, we assess the link between discrimination and decrements in performance over time. Additionally, we test supervisor social support as a moderator of the discrimination-stress relation. Findings support relations between perceived interpersonal discrimination and stress, which in turn relates to declines in physical health and performance outcomes. Moreover, supervisory support is shown to mitigate the influence of interpersonal discrimination on stress in STEM academicians.

Selection BIAS: Stereotypes and discrimination related to having a history of cancer.

Although great strides have been made in increasing equality and inclusion in organizations, a number of stigmatized groups are overlooked by diversity initiatives, including people with a history of cancer. To examine the workplace experiences of these individuals in selection contexts, we conducted 3 complementary studies that assess the extent to which cancer is disclosed, the stereotypes associated with cancer in the workplace, and discrimination resulting from these stereotypes. In a pilot study, we surveyed 196 individuals with a history of cancer (across 2 samples) about their workplace disclosure habits. In Study 1, we explored stereotypes related to employees with a history of cancer using the framework outlined by the stereotype content model. In Study 2, we used a field study to assess the experiences of job applicants who indicated they were "cancer survivors" (vs. not) with both formal and interpersonal forms of discrimination. This research shows that cancer is disclosed at relatively high rates (pilot study), those with a history of cancer are stereotyped as being higher in warmth than competence (Study 1), and the stereotypes associated with those who have had cancer result in actual discrimination toward them (Study 2). We discuss the theory behind these findings and aim to inform both science and practice with respect to this growing workplace population.

Adult survivors of childhood cancers' identity disclosures in the workplace.

PURPOSE: Recent medical advances have resulted in unprecedented increases in the number and vitality of employed adult survivors. These survivors must make decisions about whether or not to disclose their identities to others. The purpose of this study was to examine the characteristics that are related to cancer survivorship disclosure in workplace settings (perceived organizational support, centrality of survivorship to one's self-concept, and the degree to which family and friends know about one's survivor status) and an important organizational consequence: intentions to leave one's job. METHODS: A total of 151 adult survivors of childhood cancer completed an online survey. RESULTS: Extent of disclosure of one's identity as a cancer survivor was negatively associated with turnover intentions. Furthermore, organizational support, identity centrality, and disclosure outside of work were all related to disclosure in the workplace. Relative weight analysis revealed that disclosure outside of work was the most strongly related to disclosure at work. Finally, there were indirect relations such that disclosure mediated the relations among organizational support, identity centrality, and disclosure outside of work and turnover intentions. CONCLUSIONS: Survivors who were more open about their cancer survivor status at work had fewer intentions to leave their organizations. Importantly, although some antecedents to disclosure were personal characteristics, organizations can also encourage identity disclosure demonstrating that they are related to of work retention. IMPLICATIONS FOR CANCER SURVIVORS: While disclosure in the workplace is a complex decision to make, the relationship with work retention may reflect that disclosure is more likely to occur in an existing positive work environment or that disclosure itself may contribute to a positive work environment where employees tend to remain. The specific factors that trigger both disclosure and retention require further study although they are clearly related.

Weight isn't selling: The insidious effects of weight stigmatization in retail settings.

In recent years, the literature on the stigma of obesity has grown but there still remains a paucity of research examining specific issues associated with its impact in the workplace. In the current study, we examine 3 such issues related to the influence of weight-based stigmatization in retail settings. First, we highlight research on the impact of obesity in men often is minimized or altogether excluded, and we examine whether weight-based stigmatization influences men in authentic retail settings (Study 1). Across retail contexts, Study 1 reveals that heavy (vs. nonheavy) men do experience significantly more interpersonal (subtle) discrimination. Second, we examine the "why" of weight-based stigmatization and find that weight-related negative stereotypes compound to produce indirect but strong effects of stigmatization in retail settings (Study 2). Third and finally, we examine whether weight-based stigmatization against men and women in retail also influences ratings of associated products and the organizations for which heavy individuals work (also Study 2). Results from Study 2 show that stereotypes work similarly for men and women and that a stigma-by-association effect occurs in which evaluators rate products and organizations associated with heavy (vs. nonheavy) retail personnel more negatively. Finally, we discuss the importance of these findings in gaining a more holistic look at the influence of weight stigmatization in the workplace.

Race and ethnicity in the workplace: spotlighting the perspectives of historically stigmatized groups.

Racial and ethnic identity matter and are salient for people in the workplace--a place where people spend a substantial amount of their time. This special issue brings the workplace into the domain of racial and ethnic minority psychology. It also brings to the study of the workplace a relatively neglected perspective: that of people from historically stigmatized racial and ethnic groups. Though there is, of course, need for more work with different themes, outcomes, and populations, this special issue takes us an important step in the direction of understanding better and giving voice to the experiences of racial and ethnic minorities in the workplace.

Increasing colonoscopies? A psychological perspective on opting in versus opting out.

OBJECTIVE: A growing strategy to enhancing healthy decision making is to modify behavioral options to an "opt out" (i.e., if you do not want to participate, you must act) as opposed to an "opt in" (i.e., if you want to participate, you must act) default system (Choi, Laibson, Madrian, & Metrick). The current study, however, proposes that this growing trend may not always be strategic and examines these default systems in colonoscopy appointment show-up rates. METHODS: Participants in an opt-in condition received instructions to call and schedule their colonoscopy appointment, whereas participants in an opt-out condition were mailed the date and time of an already scheduled appointment. We then assessed colonoscopy appointment show-up rates. RESULTS: As predicted, results revealed significant decrements in the show-up rates of those in the opt-out (63%) versus opt-in condition, 85%; χ² (1) = 5.51, p = .02. Furthermore, when looking at patients who confirmed their appointment in both conditions, only 3% of opt-in (vs. 21% of opt-outpatients) no-showed, χ² (1) = 4.51, p = .03. CONCLUSION: Although modifying the default to an opt-out system has been shown to be effective in some health care procedures, the current results reveal this system is not always effective in producing the healthiest medical behaviors. Our research, then, suggests that opt-out paradigms are not an overall panacea for increasing participation in preventive health. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).

Bringing social identity to work: the influence of manifestation and suppression on perceived discrimination, job satisfaction, and turnover intentions.

In the current article, we explored whether manifesting or suppressing an identity (race/ethnicity, gender, age, religion, sexual orientation, or disability) at work is related to perceived discrimination, job satisfaction, and turnover intentions. Participants included 211 working adults who completed an online survey. The results showed that efforts to suppress a group identity were positively (and behavioral manifestations of group identity negatively) related to perceived discrimination, which predicted job satisfaction and turnover intentions. These results suggest that diverse employees actively manage their nonwork identities while at work and that these identity management strategies have important consequences.

Discrimination against facially stigmatized applicants in interviews: an eye-tracking and face-to-face investigation.

Drawing from theory and research on perceived stigma (Pryor, Reeder, Yeadon, & Hesson-McInnis, 2004), attentional processes (Rinck & Becker, 2006), working memory (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974), and regulatory resources (Muraven & Baumeister, 2000), the authors examined discrimination against facially stigmatized applicants and the processes involved. In Study 1, 171 participants viewed a computer-mediated interview of an applicant who was facially stigmatized or not and who either did or did not acknowledge the stigma. The authors recorded participants' (a) time spent looking at the stigma (using eye tracker technology), (b) ratings of the applicant, (c) memory recall about the applicant, and (d) self-regulatory depletion. Results revealed that the participants with facially stigmatized applicants attended more to the cheek (i.e., where the stigma was placed), which led participants to recall fewer interview facts, which in turn led to lower applicant ratings. In addition, the participants with the stigmatized (vs. nonstigmatized) applicant depleted more regulatory resources. In Study 2, 38 managers conducted face-to-face interviews with either a facially stigmatized or nonstigmatized applicant, and then rated the applicant. Results revealed that managers who interviewed a facially stigmatized applicant (vs. a nonstigmatized applicant) rated the applicant lower, recalled less information about the interview, and depleted more self-regulatory resources.

Moral credentialing by association: the importance of choice and relationship closeness.

People express more prejudice if they have established their "moral credentials." Five studies explored the acquisition of moral credentials through associations with racial minorities, particularly close relationships that are personally chosen. Participants choosing to write about a positive experience with a Black person (Study 1) or Hispanic person (Study 2) subsequently expressed more preference for Whites and tolerance of prejudice than did other participants. In Study 3, the credentialing effect of choice was diminished when participants were given an incentive for that choice. Participants in Study 4 who wrote about a Black friend were more credentialed than those who wrote about a Black acquaintance, regardless of whether the experience was positive or negative. Study 5 suggested that participants strategically referred to close associations with minorities when warned of a future situation in which they might appear prejudiced.

Making those who cannot see look best: effects of visual resume formatting on ratings of job applicants with blindness.

OBJECTIVE: Although general attitudes toward individuals with disabilities are often positive, these perceptions do not always lead to equal footing in the hiring process. This study examined stereotypes of job applicants perceived to be blind and the role of applicant blindness in hireability ratings made by human resource managers. Specifically, we highlighted a unique challenge for individuals who cannot see: the visual formatting of resumes. DESIGN: Human resource managers (N = 249) evaluated the visually formatted or unformatted resumes of hypothetical job applicants who were portrayed as blind or sighted and rated applicant hireability and personality characteristics. RESULTS: Although applicants perceived to be blind were perceived as more conscientious and agreeable by human resource managers, these positive evaluations did not translate into favorable hireability evaluations. CONCLUSION: Because human resource managers severely penalize applicants who do not attend to visual, nonfunctional resume presentation, applicants who cannot see are apt to find themselves disadvantaged in the hiring process. The implications of these findings for organizations, job seekers, and rehabilitation professionals are discussed.

It does not have to be uncomfortable: the role of behavioral scripts in Black-White interracial interactions.

Despite growing racioethnic diversity in U.S. organizations, few organizational studies have focused on Black-White interracial interactions. Two experiments examined the influence of interaction roles, and the social scripts they trigger, on White participants' anxiety during dyadic interactions with Black partners. Results from both studies reveal that White participants exhibited greater discomfort in Black-White interactions than in same-race interactions unless their interaction role offered an accessible script to guide behavior. Thus, the present findings suggest organizations may be able to attenuate anxiety among White employees by (a) providing opportunities for initial Black-White interactions in settings with clearly defined social scripts for behavior and (b) helping them to develop behavioral scripts for naturally occurring Black-White workplace interactions.

Gender and letters of recommendation for academia: agentic and communal differences.

In 2 studies that draw from the social role theory of sex differences (A. H. Eagly, W. Wood, & A. B. Diekman, 2000), the authors investigated differences in agentic and communal characteristics in letters of recommendation for men and women for academic positions and whether such differences influenced selection decisions in academia. The results supported the hypotheses, indicating (a) that women were described as more communal and less agentic than men (Study 1) and (b) that communal characteristics have a negative relationship with hiring decisions in academia that are based on letters of recommendation (Study 2). Such results are particularly important because letters of recommendation continue to be heavily weighted and commonly used selection tools (R. D. Arvey & T. E. Campion, 1982; R. M. Guion, 1998), particularly in academia (E. P. Sheehan, T. M. McDevitt, & H. C. Ross, 1998).

Compensatory strategies for reducing interpersonal discrimination: the effectiveness of acknowledgments, increased positivity, and individuating information.

Previous research has revealed, across a number of contexts, that stigmatized individuals are the recipients of interpersonal discrimination (e.g., M. R. Hebl, J. B. Foster, L. M. Mannix, & J. F. Dovidio, 2002). Such discrimination has been linked to a number of negative outcomes in the workplace, both for stigmatized individuals and for organizations as a whole (see, e.g., E. B. King, J. L. Shapiro, M. R. Hebl, S. L. Singletary, & S. Turner, 2006; C. O. Word, M. P. Zanna, & J. Cooper, 1974). The current research examines 3 individual-level compensatory strategies aimed at reducing interpersonal discrimination. Results reveal that compensatory strategies are successful in reducing interpersonal discrimination in job application contexts and that such strategies uniquely benefit stigmatized individuals.

Perceptions of obesity across the lifespan.

OBJECTIVE: Previous research on obesity stereotyping has almost extensively involved looking at the perceptions that 5-21-year-old individuals have toward members of their own age in-group. Very little research has examined how people perceive obesity across the lifespan. The current research begins to address this gap by examining the extent to which individuals between 18 and 77 years of age stereotype obesity in 20, 40, and 60-year-old targets. METHODS AND PROCEDURES: A total of 106 male and 102 female white participants viewed nine standardized Adobe- cropped photos that depicted 20, 40, and 60-year-old faces on slender, large, and very large-sized bodies. After viewing each photo, participants evaluated the targets on six dimensions used in previous obesity stereotyping research. RESULTS: As predicted, heavier women were rated more negatively than thinner women on every dimension we examined. In addition, older women were rated more negatively than younger women on attractiveness, but more positively on every other dimension. Other main effects revealed that female (relative to male) and older (relative to younger) participants were more lenient in their ratings. Several two-way interactions revealed that the obesity stereotype for attractiveness is exaggerated when targets are younger, that males (compared to females) levy a greater penalty for increasing weight, and that this pattern is exaggerated more for younger men. DISCUSSION: This research shows a consistency across the lifespan in the extent to which participants, varying in weight, age, and sex, stereotype obesity. It also appears that, at least with respect to attractiveness, younger obese individuals are denigrated to a larger degree than older. In sum, this research shows prevalent and consistent patterns of obesity stereotyping across the lifespan.

Hostile and benevolent reactions toward pregnant women: complementary interpersonal punishments and rewards that maintain traditional roles.

A naturalistic field study investigated behavior toward pregnant (vs. nonpregnant) women in nontraditional (job applicant) and traditional (store customer) roles. Female confederates, who sometimes wore a pregnancy prosthesis, posed as job applicants or customers at retail stores. Store employees exhibited more hostile behavior (e.g., rudeness) toward pregnant (vs. nonpregnant) applicants and more benevolent behavior (e.g., touching, overfriendliness) toward pregnant (vs. nonpregnant) customers. A second experiment revealed that pregnant women are especially likely to encounter hostility (from both men and women) when applying for masculine as compared with feminine jobs. The combination of benevolence toward pregnant women in traditional roles and hostility toward those who seek nontraditional roles suggests a system of complementary interpersonal rewards and punishments that may discourage pregnant women from pursuing work that violates gender norms.